1. al-Khitat

MAQRIZI

1.) From "Al-Khitaṭ"

[General Geographical Information]

The First Climate stretches across ... the "Nile of Egypt" as far as the country of the Ḥabasha and. the town of Dumqala in the country of the Nūba. (Wiet 1,1,ch.11, §37, p. 42; Bouriant, p. 31).

West (of Egypt) there is the Western Desert; to the south, the desert of the Nūba and the Ḥabasha. (W.1,1, ch.III, §1, p. 51; B., p. 36). The frontier of Egypt begins at the Sea of the Rūm at Alexandria, or, according to others, at Barqa; traverses the land, passing behind the Oases (al-wāhāt) and continues as far as Nubia; then it turns (eastwards) along the borders of Nubia and those of Aswān, touches on the territory of the Beja which lies south of Aswān till it reaches the Sea of Qulzum. (W.I,1,ch.IV, §3, p. 54; B., p. 39).

Those who know well the history (of Egypt) say that the width of Egypt, from Aswān, in the remotest districts of Upper Egypt (aṣ-Ṣa'īd al-a‘lā) near the Nubian frontier, to Rosetta is about 30 days' journey. (W. ibid.; pp. 39 - 40).

After reaching the southernmost Oases, (if) you face towards the east and walk in the direction of the Nile; you will reach the river after eight days. Then if you go (upstream) following the Nile, you will reach the end of the territory of Islam, beyond this lies the country of the Nūba. Cross the Nile and go eastward from Aswān, leaving that town behind, in the direction of 'Aydhāb on the coast of the Sea of Ḥejāz: from Aswān to 'Aydhāb the journey takes five days. (W.1,1,ch.IV, § 8, p. 57; B., p. 41).

Traders go from Upper Egypt to the Maghrib, Nubia, the Beja country, Ḥabasha, Ḥejāz and Yemen. (W.I,1, ch. IX, §34, p. 114; B., p. 76).

[The Marvels of Ancient Egypt: A Bridge Across the Nile in Nubia]

(Pharaoh 'Adīm, son of Naqtāīm) built a bridge across the Nile at a point where Nubia begins. On this bridge he erected roar statues, each facing one of the four directions; each statue held in its hands two arrows to hit any one who dared to approach from that direction. The statues remained in place until the Pharaoh of Moses - blessings upon him destroyed them. This king (‘Adīm) erected, at the entrance to Nubia, the temple which has remained until our time. (W.I, 1,ch. IX, 94, pp. 141 - 142; B., p. SO).

[The Origin of the Hawk Worship in Nubia]

The mother of (pharaoh) Marqūnis (Marqukis) was the daughter of the king of the Nūba. Her father was a worshipper of the star as-Suhā, which he called God. She asked her son to build a temple especially for her in which she would find seclusion. He built it, decorated it with gold and silver plates and erected a statue (sanam) in it, and had it (the statue) covered with silk curtains.

The queen used to enter it with her maidens and her retinue and prostrate herself before it three times every day; she instituted a monthly feast during which she offered (to the idol) victims and frankincense day and night. She also appointed a priest from the Nūba to perform the celebration, to offer victims and to burn frankincense. She did not cease from (trying to persuade) her son, until he, too, prostrated himself before the statue and called others to worship it. When the priest saw that the king had become a true worshipper of the star, he wanted to give the star Suhā a symbol (mithāl) in the form of an animal to which worship be paid. He decided to play a trick: (he waited) until the time when the hawks became very numerous in Miṣr thus causing great inconvenience to the population. Whereupon the king invited this priest and asked him the cause of such an increase in the number of hawks. He answered: "In deed, your God sent them so that you erect (a statue) similar to them to be adored". Marqūnis said: "If that will satisfy him, I shall make it". He said: "Surely, the God will be satisfied". So (the king) ordered that the likeness of a hawk be made two cubits high and one cubit wide, of solid gold; he had its eyes made from two rubies, he put two necklaces of pearls set on rows of green stones around his neck and hung a pearl on its beak; its thighs were ornamented with red pearls. He then placed it on a pedestal of chiselled silver standing on a base of blue glass and had it erected under a vault on the right side of the sanctuary (haikal). He ordered that all kinds of spices (al-afāwiyah) and aromatic resins (as-sumūqh) be burnt. He offered it a black calf and the first brood of the chickens and the first fruits and flowers. (W.1,1, ch. X, §11, pp. 152- 153; B., p. 97).

[The Nubians and Some Neighbouring Peoples]

Epidemics in Egypt are always caused by an abnormal corruption which is easily spread by the air. This corruption may begin in Egypt itself or in the neighbouring countries, such as the (country of the) Sūdān, Syria or Barqa. (W.1,1,ch. XIII, p. 205; B., p. 132).

In the Commentary of the Fourth Book of Ptolemy it is said; Concerning the countries, of the (inhabited) quarter which is near the centre of all the Earth, such as Barqa, Egypt, the Oases, the land of the Nūba, and the Beja arid the land of the coast east of the Nūba and the Ḥabasha, all these countries lie in the angle which extends its influence on all the inhabited quarters (of the Earth) situated between the north (wind) (dabūr) and the south (wind) (janūb) [B: vent du nord], (in other words) these regions torn altogether the western half of the inhabited quarter (of the Earth) which is under the direct influence (tadbīr) of the Five Planets together. The inhabitants of these lands worship God, venerate the Genii (al-junn), practice wailing for the dead and bury their dead in graves with different ceremonies: they have different customs, rites and beliefs because mysteries (asrār) appeal strongly to them, so that every (racial) group (tā’ifa) among them performs one or another secret ceremony (al-umūr al-khaffīyya) which they all profess and perform. From these mysteries (asrār) originated the mathematical sciences (al-‘ulūm ad-daqīqa). When they are subject to foreign rule, these peoples are wretched and are generally lazy and cunning. When they have foreigners subjected to their rule, they show great generosity and kindness. Men take a great number of wives, and women alike have a number of husbands; as they (men) feel strongly inclined to intercourse, they have many children and the women are frequently pregnant. Many men are, however, weak and effeminate. (W.1,1, ch. XIII passim, pp. 205 - 206; B., pp. 134 - 135).

[The Nile]

The river (Nile) originally had no regular course, but flowed into swamps, and branched off on into the land, until King Naqrāwūs sent an expedition to Nubia comprising men who straightened the course. They dug several canals to flow from the main course so as to supply water to the towns which they built; one of these was the canal to the town of Amsūs.

... The same author ["i.e. Ibn Waṣīf Shāh] adds: Al-Walīd, the son of Dawma' (b.: Darma'), the Amalecite ... sent one of his servants by name 'Awn to Egypt; then he himself went (to Egypt).

... He (Walīd) had the idea of exploring the sources of the Nile, and finding out what peoples were living on its banks. He spent three years making preparations for the expedition, then he set out with a numerous army. He never passed through a country without exterminating the inhabitants. He passed through the countries of the Blacks (umam as-sūdān), went beyond them, then he entered the country of the gold (arḍ adhdhahab) and saw there small rods (qudbān) sticking out of the ground. (W.I,1, ch. XV, §2-3, pp. 225 - 227; B., pp. 146 - 148).

... (Idrīsī says): This lake (i.e. the one from which the Nile river finally flows) is called Kuwarā (Kurī, Kūra), after the name of a tribe of Sūdān who dwell on its banks. These Sūdān are a savage people and eat the men whom they can capture. The river Ghāna (baḥr Ghānah) and the great river (baḥr) of the Ḥabasha flows from this lake. On flowing out of the lake, the Nile crosses the country of the Kuwarā (Kurī, Kūra) and the Yana (Yanna, Nana) a tribe of Blacks (Sūdān) between Kanem (B.: Katem) and the Nūba. On reaching Dongola (Dumgala), the town of the Nūba, it enters into the Second Climate flowing in a (north-) easterly direction. (W.I,1,ch. XV, § 16, pp. 229 - 230; B., p. 149).

... Navigation of the boats coming downstream from the Nūba ends where the Nile reaches the cataracts (al-janādil), as well as the navigation by the boats coming upstream from the Ṣa'īd. Outcrops of rocks allow to beats no through-passage, except at the time of the flood. (W., ibid., pp. 231 - 232; B., p. 150).

What he (Idrīsī) says about the branch of the Nile, which flows across al-Ḥabasha is not true. The flood- season of the Nile occurs in Egypt at the same time as in the country of the Nūba and (in the other countries lying) beyond it to the south. There is no difference between the two regions except on two particulars: the first is that in the land of Egypt it flows in a rocky bed (ukhdūd), while there (in Nubia) it spreads far and wide over the lands. The second point is that in Egypt the flood is measured by the Nilometer (miqyās), but in Nubia it is quite impossible to measure it because the waters are dispersed. Those who have a good knowledge of Egypt, know well that the increase of water in the Nile is caused by the rains in the southern region. (W., ch. XV, §24, pp. 244 - 245; B., p. 160).

It is told that the Nile is formed by ten streams which flow from the above mentioned Jabal al-Qamar – each five streams gathering into one tributary. Then the ten streams flow into two lakes - five streams into one lake; then a river (baḥr) flows from the eastern lake smoothly (latīf), eastwards near Mount Qāqūlī (or: Qāqūl, Qāqarlī) and passes by the towns of that region, until it enters the Indian Sea. From the two lakes, six rivers flow, i.e. three rivers from each lake; the six rivers unite in a vast lake which is called "The Swamp" (al-baṭīḥa); on it there is a castle (qasr) which resembles a mountain round which the waters divide into two streams. One of them flows out from the western side of the Swamp, and this is the "Nile of the Sūdān" which becomes a river (baḥr) and is called the "Great River of the Damādim" (baḥr ad-Damādim). It turns towards the west between Samghara and Ghāna, passing south of Samghara and north of Ghāna, it touches the town of Barīsa, then disappears under a mountain south of that town beyond the equator as far as Rafila (?), after which it forms a lake in that region, then the remainder of the water continues flowing westwards till the lands of Mallī and Takrūr and ends in the (western) ocean, south of the town of Qaltabū (Qalab.tū?, Qalb.twā'.F.l.sū.?). The other half begins on the northern side and flows northwards as far as to the east of the town of Jīmī (Hīmī); there it divides in¬to two branches, one branch flows eastwards to the town of Saḥart, then turns south, then again southeast, to the town of Saḥarta (Sahrīyya ?), then to the town of Marka, and ends at the equator at Long. 65°, where it forms a lake (buḥairah); as for the main branch (of the Nile), from the place where it parts from the (Saḥart) branch, east of the town of Shīmī, it continues its course in the northern direction, passes by the borders of the country of the Ḥabasha, then flows north on the countries of the Sūdān to the town of Dumqala, until it falls over the cataracts to Aswān ... etc. (W.I,1,ch. XVI, §25, pp. 245 - 246; B., p. 161).

Mas’ūdī said: The Indians (al-hind) say that the flood of the Nile and its decrease depend on the torrential rains. We know that this is true because (it occurs regularly) in connection with the stars (al-anwā') causing the rainy season and thunderstorms. The Rūm said that the Nile neither increases nor decreases, and that the flood and its ebb are due to the many (hidden) springs which feed it. The Copts say that the increase and the decrease are caused by some springs on the coast, which can be observed by those who travel and explore its up¬per course. Others say that the Nile neither increases nor decreases, but that its flood is due to the wind blowing from the north, which stops its water and forces it to overflow into the countryside. Others say that the Nile flood is caused by a wind blowing called Mullathan (muln: B.: Moltan), which brings the rain-carrying clouds from below the equator; therefore it rains in the countries of the Sūdān, the Ḥabasha and the Nūba, and the mass of these waters reaches Miṣr at (the time of) the increase of the Nile and Irrigates it. (W.I, 1, ch. XVII, §13, pp. 255 - 256; B., p. 167).

All these eight rivers end into one lake out of which one river flows and this is the Nile of Egypt. It traverses the country of the Nūba and merges with another river, the source of which is not in the region across the equator. That lake is vast and round, its diameter equalling 3° (degrees). The distance of its centre from the beginning of the inhabited lands in the west is 71°; the stream flowing from this spring meets the Nile at a point distant 43° 40’ from the nearest inhabited land in the west. (W.I, 1, ch. XIX, pp. 267 - 268; B., p. 175).

[An Expedition Against the Blacks (Sūdān)]

Towards the beginning of the 30th year of the reign (of the Egyptian King Nadares b. Sabin b. Qobīim), the Zanj and the Nūba branches of the Sūdān carried out a raid on his kingdom, troubled and pillaged it (Nadares) gahtering his armies from the districts (a'māl) of Egypt, prepared boats and sent a general called Filūtus (Bilatus?, B.: Philotheos) with 300,000 men and another general with another similar army. He sent 300 boats up the Nile. On each boat there was a magician (kāhin), each one capable of doing a special miracle. Then he himself set out with a numerous army, met the multitude of the Sūdān who numbered about one million, defeated them, killed a great number and took many prisoners: his armies pursued them until they arrived at a place where elephants are found, in the country of the Zanj. He captured a great number of these animals, as well as leopards (numūr) and other wild animals and sent them to Egypt, where he had them tamed. On the borders of his country he built a light-house (manār) on which he recorded his journey, his victory and the time he spent on the expedition. Later, he then died in Egypt and was buried in a "naos" (nawūs), in which he had set up many effigies symbolizing the stars (aṣnām al-kawākib), gold, precious stones (jawhar), jewels and statues. On the "naos" (shrine) was engraved his name and the date of his death. Charms (ṭilasmāt) were placed on it (naos) so that they might keep (evil-doers) away. (W.I,l,ch. XXIII, §5, pp. 298 - 299; B., p. 199).

[A Tax on Nubian Slaves Abolisned by Sultan Nāṣir Ibn Qalāwūn]

One of the taxes and privileges abolished by the Sultan (Nāṣir Ibn Qalāwūn) was the tax of the chieftains (shadd az-zu’amā’), which was a very peculiar institution (jiha mufrada). He also abolished the tax (huqūq) levied on the Blacks (Sūdān), and the inspection of the boats and whatever was prescribed as payment on every slave, girl or man, at the time they were admitted into the hostels (khānāt) for the purpose of shameful actions (li-'amāl al-fāḥishah); on that occasion it was customary to levy a fixed tax on every male and female. (W.I,2, ch. XXXII, §16, p. 27; B., p. 255).

[Nubians in Egypt under the Fatimite Dynasty]

Ibn Muyassar [q.v.] says in his "History" that the slaves in the service of the lady mother of the Imam ('abīd as-sayyida umm al-imām) al-Mustanṣir billah Abū Tammīm Ma'add b. aẓ-Ẓāhir li-'azz dīnillah Abūl-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. al-Ḥākim biamrillah Abū 'Alī Manṣūr b. al-'Azīz billah, numbered five thousand, without counting (those in) the army.

When the government (ad-dawla) passed from the Fatimites into the hands of al-Malik an-Nāṣir Saladin Yūsuf b. Ayyūb the latter suppressed the corps of the Blacks slaves (al-'abīd as-sūd) in the Egyptian army as well as the Egyptian emirs (al-umarā' al-miṣriyyīn), the Bedouins (al-'urbān), the Armenians (al-Arman) and others, so that the army consisted (only) of Kurds and Turks. (W. 1.2, ch. XXXIV, §§21-22, p. 45; B., p. 270).

[Enterprises of the Pharaoh Naqrāwūs]

Master Ibrāhīm b. Waṣīf Shāh tells us in his book "Stories and Marvels of Egypt" that the old (town of) Miṣr (Miṣr al-qadīma) was called Amsūs and that the first king of the land of Egypt was Naqrāwūs, the powerful, (al-jabbār), son of Miṣrāīm, and (that) the meaning of Naqrāwūs is "king of his own people".

It is said that it was this king who straightened the bed of the Nile. Formerly, (this river) spread between two mountain ranges. He sent an expedition (of men) to the country of the Nūba to straighten the Nile bed (handasū-ha). They dug a large canal (nahr) flowing from it and built towns along it and planted many trees. He also wished to know the sources of the Nile: he therefore set out (on an expedition) and travelled until he arrived beyond the equator and found himself at the shore of the Dark Lake of Pitch (al-baḥr al-aswad az-ziftī) where he saw the Nile welling up to the surface of this lake like a network (of streams). From there the streams entered Jabal al-Qamar, flowed out of it and ended in (some) swampy lakes (batā’ih). It is also said that it was he who erected the statues which are found in that region. When he returned to Amsūs, he divided his kingdom among the children. (W., p. II, t.3, ch.II, §§1,2,5, pp. 6-8; B., p. 375).

After him (Naqrāwūs), his son Khaslīm became the king ... it was he who built the bridge (al-qanṭara) over the Nile in the country of the Nūba. When he died he was placed in a temple (nāwūs) together with his treasures and a talisman. (W., ibid., §15, pp. 14 - 15; B., pp. 379 - 380). They (the Egyptians) made as their king 'Adīm, son or Qafṭurīm, (Qofṭīm) ... In Nubia he built a bridge (al-qanṭara) over the Nile and he reigned 14 years ... During his days Qos was built and he raided the Ḥabasha and took prisoners. (W., ibid., §40,43 passim, p. 39; B., p. 395).

After her [i.e. Nūriāt, a sorceress queen], Marqūnis became king; he was good and wise. His mother was the daughter of the king of the Nūba. This princess did many wonderful things (‘ajā’ib). During his reign all sort of wondrous objects (kullu qharība) were made. (W., ibid., §§ 72-73, p. 47; B., p. 400).

He was followed as king by his son Badāris (B.: Todrās) who extended his power over all the provinces.

He carried out a raid in the land of the Zanj and the Ḥabasha (branches) of the Blacks (Sūdān). He sent 300 boats (safīna) down the Nile, met the Sūdān who were about one million in number and defeated them; he killed the majority of them and took a great number of them prisoners. He also took back to Egypt elephants and leopards (numūr). On the frontiers of his country he built light-houses (manārāt), on which he engraved his name, the account of his journey and of his victory.

In his time God sent the prophet Ṣāliḥ to the Thammūd. It is also said that it was he who settled the Nubians (an-Nūba) where they are now. During the war he waged in the land of the Ḥabasha and at the time of the slaughter he made among the Black peoples (umam as-sūdān), he found among them a nation (umma), who could read the books of Adam, Seth (Shith) and Idrīs; he bestowed favours on them and assigned a homeland to them, in a land lying at one month's distance from Egypt (ard Miṣr). These people were called "Nūba". He died at Memphis (al- manf). (W.,ibid., §§80-81, pp. 48 - 49; B. pp. 401 - 402).

His son Hazaba (other reading: Harbatā, Harnabā) reigned after him. Hazaba’s father had taught him the worship of the only one God and had kept him away from the worship of idols; but after the death of his father, Hazaba fell back to the worship of idols in use among his people.

... He carried out a raid against the Hind and the Sūdān, built one hundred boats of the same type as the boats (sufun) of the Hind; he set out and took with him a woman ... he built temples (hayākil) in which he erected effigies symbolizing the Planets, (aṣnām li-1-kawākib), he raided the coast of Syria, subjected its inhabitants and returned to Egypt; he then raided the Nūba and the Sūdān and imposed on them a tribute which they had to bring to him. He raised the prestige of the priests (al-kahnah) and ascribed his victory to the help of the Planets. (W. ibid., §83, pp. 49 - 50; B., pp. 402 - 403).

It is said that the pharaoh of Joseph was called ar-Rayyān (Riyān) b. al-Walīd b. Layth b. Fārān (Qārān) b. Amrū b. 'Amalīq b. Balqa' b. 'Āber b. Aslīḥā b. Lūdh b. Sām b. Nūḥ. It is also said that the pharaoh of Joseph is the grandfather (jidd) of the pharaoh of Moses, i.e. the father of his father (abū abī-hi).

... He set out on a campaign against the Maghrib with an army of 900,000 men, crossed the territory of the Barbar, the majority of whom he subjected, proceeded to the Green Sea, then marched southwards; went up to the Nūba and returned to Menf. (W., ibid., §105, p. 56; B., pp. 406 - 407).

She (Dalūka, the Old Lady), in order to protect Egypt against the enemies, built a wall which extended from the frontiers of Rafaḥ (B.: zinj) to Ifrīqiya, the Oases and Nubia. All along this wall there were gates with guards watching day and night, keeping fires alight continually. She had this wall (jidār) built around Egypt within six months; this is the wall known tinder the name of the Wall of the Old Lady (ḥā'iṭ al-'Ajūz). (W., ibid., §122, p. 61; B., p. 410).

When Egypt was ruled by Juriā (B.: Gouriāq), the daughter of Ṭūṭis, the first pharaoh of Egypt, who was also the pharaoh of Ibrāhīm ... she built a fortress (hiṣn) on the frontiers of Egypt, facing the Nūba and a bridge (qanṭara), under which the water of the Nile flows. When she became ill, she left her cousin, Dalīfa (B.: Zelfa), daughter of Māmūn to reign; then she died. (W. II, vol. 3, ch. 3, §6, p. 78; B., p. 420).

[Nubians in Egypt at the Time of the Arab Conquest]

It is said that 'Amrū ibn al-'Āṣ granted the population of Alexandria their lives and that, rather than massacre or plunder, he put them under the protection of Islam in the same way as he had done to the Nūba. (W.II, 3, ch. XIII, §12, p. 156; B., p. 474).

Know that this sand (i.e. the Western Desert) is spread over the surface of the Earth. Some people call it the "sand of the dunes (ar-raml al-habīr; B.: "le sable mamelonné")." The length of this desert, which begins behind the two mountains known as Tāy', reaches the sea, on the east, and, stretching behind these mountains, extends as far as Egypt and Nubia and the Ocean and takes five months' journey to walk across. (W.II, 3, ch. XXI, §1, p. 220; B., p. 523).

Chapter XXX : The Cataracts and the History of the Nūba in Retrospect

‘Abdalla b. Aḥmad b. Salīm (Sulaym) al-Aswānī said in his book entitled "History of the Nūba, Maqurra, ‘Alwa, the Beja and the Nile" (Akhbār an-nūba wa-l-maqurra wa-'alwa wa-l-buja wa-n-nīl): -

The first village (balād) of the Nūba is the village (qarya) of al-Qasr, five miles from Aswān. The last stronghold (hiṣn) of the Moslems is an island called Bi¬lāq, one mile away from the (first) village of the Nūba, situated on the Nubian river bank. From Aswān to this place there are huge cataracts (janādil) in the river (al-baḥr): boats cannot pass through, except with the skillful help of the local fishermen, who are well acquainted with them, because these rocks are steep and the Nile divides here into many streams. The roaring of the cataracts is heard from a great distance. In this village there is an armed garrison (musallaḥa) and a gate leading to the country of the Nūba. Between this village and the first cataract (janādil) of the Nubian country there are ten halting places (marāḥil). The Moslems (who live) in this district (nāhiya) have a free hand there: they own properties in the neighbourhood and carry out trade in the upper part. There is also a number of Moslem inhabitants but none of them speaks Arabic. This district is narrow and uneven, very mountainous and situated exclusively on the Nile, its villages being ranged in lines along its banks, with palm and muql (bdellium, Theban palm-tree).

The upper part of this district is broader than its lower part and has vine plantations (kurūm); the Nile does not water its fields because of the upward slope of the land (from the river). The cultivated area is one or two or three acres (faddān) and is watered by water-wheels (dawālīb) drawn by oxen. They (the inhabitants) plant little, wheat (qamh), but more barley and rye (sult).

Because the cultivated area is narrow, they plant continuously never allowing the land to go fallow. In summer, after fertilising it with manure and (new) earth, they sow it with dukhn (pennisetum millet), dhurra (sorghum millet), ... (al-jāwrus), sesame and beans (lūbiyah).

In this district is located the town of Bujarāsh , the capital of al-Marīsī, as well as two fortresses (qal’a), one ox which is the fortress of Ibrīm. There is also the port (minā) known as Adwā' (cf. Wiet, ibid., note 6), reputed to be the homeland of Luqmān the Wise and Dhū-l-Nūn. There are also the marvellous ruins of a temple (birbā). This district is ruled by a governor (wālī) called "the Lord of the Mountain" (Ṣāḥib al-Jabāl), representing the Great Lord of the Nūba (‘azīm an-Nūba). He is among the highest ranking of their wālīs. This district borders on the land of Islam and anyone who comes from the land of the Moslems to Nubia has to deal with him, whether for the purpose of trace or to bring a gift to him or to his Lord (mawlā). He receives every¬one and presents all (visitors) with slaves, but allows no one, Moslem or otherwise, to travel (up country) to visit his Lord.

At the first cataract in the country of the Nūba there is a village called Baqwā (Ta'wā, Taqwā; B. : Taqoui), which is a terminal port for the boats of the Nūba sailing upstream from al-Qasr on the frontier of their country. The boats cannot go further. No one, Moslem or otherwise, is allowed to go upstream beyond this point, except by permission from the Lord of the Mountain. Between the port and the Upper Maqs (al-maqs al-a'lā) there are six stopping places (all the length) full of cataracts. This is the worst part I ever saw in this district, for it is narrow, extremely difficult to navigate and full of cataracts and intervening rocks, where the Nile sometimes becomes as narrow as fifty cubits (dhirā’) only. The land on either side is cut by narrow passages (majāwib), steep heights and mountainous passes so narrow that neither a rider nor any ill-equipped traveller on foot can cross them. On both the western and the eastern (banks) there are sands. These mountains provide the inhabitants with a (natural) fortress (hiṣn), where the inhabitants of the district bordering the land of Islam seek shelter. In some islands there are palm-trees and some plantations of negligible value. Their staple food is fish. They also use fish oil (shahm) to anoint themselves. These islands are part of the Marīs and are under the authority of the Lord of the Mountain. The commander of the garrison (musallaḥa), which is in the Upper Maqs, is appointed by their Lord (Kabīr). He keeps a very tight control over them, so tight that even their greatest man ('azīma-hom), when he passes through, is stopped by any man from the garrison, who feigns to search him, so that he might do the same to the (King's) sons, his viziers and anybody else.

Here neither the dinar, nor the dirham are of any use because they do not use money in their transactions, except with the Muslims beyond the cataract they do not buy or sell with money, but carry out their transactions by the exchange of slaves (raqīq), cattle, camels, iron tools and grains.

Nobody is allowed to pass beyond this point except by permission of the king (malik): whoever transgresses this (law), is liable to the death penalty, whosoever he may be. By this precautionary measure, whatever happens (in their kingdom) is kept secret, so that their army can attack a country or carry a raid in the (environing) desert without anybody knowing.

The emery (sinbādh, whetstone) which is used in polishing gems, comes from this spot in the Nile. They dive for it and recognize it by its coldness when touched, compared with other stones. If they have any doubt as to its nature, they breathe on it and it forms a light film of moisture.

Beyond this garrison, there is a village called Say, which is on a cataract. (Say) is one of their seats (of government), where a bishop resides. There is a ruined temple (birbā).

Next comes the district (nāḥiya) of Saqlūdhā, which means the "Seven Governors" (wūlāh); its land is very similar to the region bordering the land of the Muslims, somewhere wide, somewhere narrow, with its palm-trees, vines, muql, and other plantations. There are few cotton plantations from which they make rough cotton material, and there are also some olive trees. The Wālī of this district is directly appointed by their king (kabīr) and under him are other governors who exercise authority.

A fortress (qal’a) called Astanūn (other readings: Astūn, Asfūn) is located there and it marks the beginning of the third cataract, which is the most difficult cataract to cross, because there is a mountain protruding into the Nile from the east to the west, and the water gushes through three passages, and might even be limited to only two (passages) at low tide. It has a terrible roar but (presents) a beautiful view as the waters fall on it (the bedrock) from the heights of the mountain. South of it, the (river) bed is full of rocks lying in the middle of the Nile, stretching over the distance of three days' journey (abrud) as far as the village of Bastū (Nastū, Sanū, Banstū, Yascū, Yasīr), which is the last village (in the territory) of the Marīs and the beginning of the country of Muqurra. From this place to the frontier of the Muslims the language of the people is the Marīsī, and this (al-Marīs) is the last (most northerly) district of their king (mutamallik). There is the district (nāḥiya) of Baqūn, which means "marvel": it is so called because of its beauty.

I did not see a wider district on the Nile: I estimated that the width of the Nile in this district, from east to west, is five days' journey. The islands break up the Nile into several streams, which flow among them through a low-lying land and (along) an uninterrupted string of villages and fine buildings with pigeon towers, cattle and camels. The bulk food supplies to their capital come from this district. Their (commonest) birds are the taqhṭīṭ, the nūbī, the babbāqh and other beautiful birds. Their king prefers to spend his leisure in this district. (Al-Aswānī) said: I was with him on some of these occasions and we made our way in the narrow canals under the shadow of trees from both banks. The crocodiles in this country are not harmful. I saw them (the inhabitants) swimming across these canals. Next comes Safadh Ba'al. which is a narrow district, similar to the one on the borders of their country, with the difference that at Safadh Ba'al there are beautiful islands, and within less than two days' journey are about thirty villages with beautiful buildings, churches and monasteries, many palm-trees, vines, gardens, cultivated fields and broad pastures on which one can see camels (ibil) and very fine dromedaries (jumāl suhub) for breedding (mu'abbala li-n-nitāj). Their king often comes here because the southern border of this district is contiguous with Dongola (Dunqula), the capital. From the town of Dongola, the capital of the country, to Aswān, is a distance of fifty days away. He (al-Aswānī) gave a description of it and then said: they roof their houses with the wood of the sunt tree and the sāj, which is carried to them by the Nile during the flood season, in planks (isqālāt) with carvings (manhuta), and no one knows where they come from. I saw for myself some very strange signs (‘alāma qharība).

The distance between Dongola and the beginning of the country of 'Alwa is more than that between Dongola and Aswān. In that region there are big and small villages (al-qurā wa-ḍ-ḍiyyā'), islands, cattle, palm-trees, muql, cultivated fields and vines, many times as much as is seen on the side bordering the land of the Muslims. In these places there are large islands (several) days' journey in length, in which there are mountains and wild beasts and lions (as-sibā’) and stretches of desert, where the traveller fears to travel without water. From these districts the Nile turns eastwards and westwards for long stretches equalling several days' journey, until the land becomes even on the district where the bend of the Nile reaches the mine known as ash-Shanka; it is the country known as ash-Shanqir. Al-Omarī, whose name was Abū 'Abdurrahman 'Abdalla b. 'Abdulhamīd b. 'Abdalla b. 'Abdul'azīz b. 'Abdalla b. 'Abdalla b. 'Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb originated in this country. He had waged several wars in Nubia and Bejaland, had defeated the army of Ahḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn and occupied this district until he met his fate.

The hippopotamuses are numerous in these places. From this place begins the road leading to Sawākin, Bādi', Dahlak and the islands of the Red Sea.

The Omayyads who escaped death by fleeing to Nūba passed along these roads. In this district there is also a number of Beja, who are known as az-Zanāfij: they had migrated to Nubia long ago and settled there; all of them lead their own pastoral life and preserve their own language, not mixing with the Nūba, nor settling in their (Nubians) villages. They are under a wālī, who is appointed by the Nubian King. (W. II, 3, pp. 252 - 258).

Chapter XXXI: About the Branching of the Nile as from the Country of 'Alwa and About its Peoples

The Nūba and the Muqurra are two races (jinsāni), each speaking a different language. Both live along the banks of the Nile. The Nūba, who are the Marīs, are neighbours of the land of Islam. There is a five miles gap between the frontier of their country and Aswān. It is said that Salhā, the ancestor (jadd) of an-Nūba, and Muqurrī (or Muqurrā), the ancestor of al-Mugurrah, were (both) from Yemen. It is said that (both) an-Nūba and Muqurrī were from Himyar: most of the genealogists agree that all of them (annahum jamī'an) are descendants of Ḥam b. Noah. Between the Nūba and the Muqurra there were wars before (the coming of) Christianity.

The land of al-Muqurra begins at a village called Tāfa, the day’s distance from Aswān. Their royal town (madīnat maliki-him) is called Bajarāsh, less than ten day's journey from Aswān. It is told that Moses - God may be pleased with him! - raided them before he began his (prophetic) mission in the time of the Pharaoh, and destroyed Tāfa. They were (at that time) pagans (Sābi’a), who used to worship the Planets (Kawākib) and erect statues to them; later both the Nūba and the Muqurra became Christians. The town of Dongola is the capital of their kingdom (dār mamiakati-him).

The frontier of the country of 'Alwa is (marked by) some villages on the east bank of the Nile, called al-Abwāb. This district (nāḥiya) has a wālī who is subject to the Lord of ‘Alwa and is known under the name of al-wahwāh. From this, district the Nile branches into seven streams, one of which coming from an eastern direction, has turbid water but gets so dry in summer that people camp on its bed. When the flood season comes, water springs from its bed and rises up in pools which are in the river; then rains and downpours come in the rest of the country and the level of the water rises. It is also said that the head of this river is a large source ('ain) which flows from a mountain.

The historian of the Nūba said: - Simon (Sīmūn), the Crown Prince (ṣāḥib ‘ahd) of the country of ‘Alwa, told me that under the mud of the bed of this river, there is a large fish (ḥūt) without scales, of a king which is not found in the Nile. It is found by digging as deep as the size (qāmah) of a man or more until it emerges. It is a big fish. Along this (river), there is a race (jins) which is mixed (by intermarriage) between the 'Alwa and the Buja: they are called "Dīhīyyūn" (Dījīyyūn, Dasīhūn) and another race called "Bazah": the bird called the "Bāzīn pigeon" comes from their land. Behind these (peoples) there is the frontier of the country of Ḥabasha.

Then there is the White Nile (an-Nīl al-abyad), which is a river coming from the west; it is intensely white like milk. He (al-Aswānī) said: - I asked an experienced traveller who came from the western parts of the countries of the Sūdān about the Nile in their country and its colour. He said that it flows out of mountains of sand, or out of a mountain of sand; then its waters run together in the country of the Sūdān into large pools, flows towards unknown countries, but, in that place, it is not yet white: it acquires that colour on account of the kind of soil through which it flows, or because of another river which enters it. On its banks there are peoples of different races (ajnās).

Then there is the Green Nile (an-Nīl al-akhḍar), a river which flows from the south-eastern direction. It is intensely green, very transparent in colour, so that one can distinctly see what kind of fish there are in its depths. The taste (of the Green Nile water) is different from that of the (White) Nile; he who armies from it soon becomes thirsty. The fish is the same in ail (these rivers), but its taste is different. During the flood season such kinds of wood as teak (as-sāj), log-wood (al-baqm), al-qānā' (?) (qhātā) and a wood which smells like the olibanum (labān), float downstream. Also large logs are brought down which can be worked into nalms for boats. This (kind of) wood also grows on its banks. It is also related (by al-Aswānī) that the wood of frankincense (bakhūr) is found (in the flood waters). He said: — I saw that some planks (siqālāt) of sāj, which are carried during the flood season, bear some strange signs. These two rivers, viz. the White and the Green, meet near the capital of the sovereign (mutamallik) of the country of 'Alwa and each of them keeps its own colour for about one day's journey, after which they mingle up. Their waters, when they meet, throw up big waves. He said: - I spoke with someone who took water from the White Nile and poured it into the Green Nile: the water (of the White Nile) remained for one hour the colour of milk before it mingled up. Between these two rivers is an island, the end of which is not known, nor does anybody know the end of these two rivers. The width of the first one is known (at the beginning), but further on it expands and its width increases as much as one month's journey, and further on its width has not been explored at all, for the peoples who live there, fear one another in fact, many races (ajnās) dwell on these two rivers. He (Aswānī) said: (Someone) told me that some kings (mutamallik) of the country of 'Alwa set out to visit the extreme frontier (of the island), but they failed to reach it after a number of years, and that, on its southern extremity, there is a race who, during the day-time, dwell together with their beasts in houses (built) like vaults, under the surface of the ground, because of the excessive heat of the sun, and come out during the night. Among them there are people who go naked.

The other four rivers also flow from a south-eastern direction all in the same season. Their sources cure not known. They differ from the White and the Green Rivers in width and in the number of streams and islands. All these four (rivers) flow into the Green river as well as the first one mentioned, then join the White (river): all (their banks) are inhabited and cultivated. One journeys through them by boat. One of these four comes from the country of the Ḥabasha. Al-Aswānī said: As I wanted to know more about these rivers I went on asking questions to this and that person, but I did not find any informant who told me that he had personally explored the source of all these four rivers. The one whom I asked said, on the authority of others, that (these rivers) begin in a wasteland (kharāb): (he said) that during the flood season some parts of boats (alāt marākib) and doors (a’bwāb) and other things are carried down these rivers and this proves that beyond that waste there is other inhabited land ('imāra).

As for the flood season, all agree that it is caused by the rains together with a substance that comes down spontaneously (mādda ta'tī min dhāti-ha) with the flood water and the proof of it is that this river dries up and its bed is inhabited; then, during the flood season, water springs (from its bed) and what is marvellous about it is that the flood, takes place at the same time in these rivers (which finally merge together), as well as in the other districts and countries, viz. in Egypt, in the two Thebaids (aṣ-Ṣa'īdayn). at Aswān, in the two kingdoms of Nūba and 'Alwa and in the land beyond them, What is peculiar of this flood is that it may occur, for example, at Aswān, and not at the same time at Qoos, but here it will be noticed later. Whenever the rains are abundant in the upper regions of the Nile and the streams come together, one understands that that is a year of plenty (riī "good irrigation"); but whenever the rains in the upper regions are scarce, one knows that that will be a year of drought.

... Some of the four rivers come from the countries of the Zanj because they carry wood of the zanjī type. Suyya is the capital of 'Alwa (al-'Ulwā) (situated) to the east of the great island between the two great rivers (al-bahrain), the White and the Green, at its northern tip, near their junction, on the eastern bank of the river (an-baḥr) which dries up and on the bed of which people camp. It has fine buildings (abniya husān) and large monasteries (dūr), churches rich with gold and gardens; there is also a great suburb (rabaḍ) where many Moslems live. The king (mutamallik) of 'Alwa is more powerful than the king (mutamallik) of Muqurra, has a larger army and more horses than the Muqurran (al-muqurrī): his country is more fertile and larger; but palm trees and vines are less numerous in his country. The commonest grain among them is the white dhurra (ad-dhurra al-bay-dā') which resembles rice; with it they make their bread (khubz) and their beer (mizr); they have plenty of meat because of the abundance of cattle and large plains for grazing plain land, so vast that it takes several days to reach the mountains. They have excellent horses (‘itāq), tawny camels (ṣuhub) of pure Arabian pedigree ('urāb). Their religion is Christianity (naṣrānīyya) of the Jacobite sect (ya’agiba); their bishops (asāqifa) are dependant on the Patriarch of Alexandria (ṣāḥib al-iskandarīyya) like the Nūba; their books are in Greek (bi-r-rūmīyyah) and they translate (yufassirūnaha) (these) into their own language. They are less intelligent than the Nūba. Their king can reduce to slavery any of his subjects he wants whether he be guilty of a crime or not, and they do not oppose him, rather they prostrate themselves before him. They do not revolt against his order, however, unjust it may be; (on the contrary) they call out loudly "May the king live (al-malik ya'īsh!)! And let his order be executed!" He (the king) is crowned with (a crown of) gold. Gold is found in plenty in his country.

One of the marvels of his country is that on the great island between the two rivers there is a race called al-Karsā: they have a vast land which is fertilised (muzdara’a) by the Nile and the rain. When the time for sowing comes, everyone goes out with whatever seed (bidhr) he has and traces the boundaries of the land according to his quantity of seed; he spreads a little of the seed at the four corners of the field and puts the (remainder of the) seed in the middle of the enclosure and also a little mizr. Then he goes away. The next morning, he finds that the area he has enclosed has been sowen and the mizr has been drunk. When it is harvest time, he harvests a small part of the crop and places it wherever he likes together with a little mizr and away he goes; then he finds that all the crop has been harvested and grounded. If he wants to have it thrashed or winnowed, he acts in the same way. If any one wants to clear his seed from the weeds and, by mistake, uproots even a little seed, he will find (on the morrow) that all the seed has been uprooted. This district (nāḥiya), where the things I have just mentioned take place, contains vast territories (buldān) equal to two months' journey in both length and width; and all of it is sown at the same time. The provisions (mīra') of the (people of the) country of 'Alwa and of their king come from this district: they send the boats and these come back loaded. Sometimes there is war between them. Al-Aswānī said: - This account is true and is well known among all the Nūba, the 'Alwa and the Moslem traders, and all those who travel over that country: they have no doubt about it, nor suspicion. Were it not so well known and widely spread, no one would believe any part of what I reported, but would treat it as a shameful lie. The natives believe that the jinn do this and that they appear to some of their wizards who, by means of some stones, have the power to subject them (the jinn) to their will and to work wonders for them. (The natives claim) that even the clouds obey (their wizards).

Al-Aswānī said: - One of the wonders of Nubia - about which the King of Maqurra told me – (is) that, when they have rains on the mountains, they, soon afterwards, collect fish on the ground. I asked them what kind it was. They said that it was small in size and has a red tail. Al-Aswānī said: - I saw many tribes of the people whom I mentioned before; most of them believe in the Creator (al-bārī) and make offerings to Him in the form of the Sun, or the Moon or the Stars. Some of them do not know the Creator and adore the Sun and the Day (an-na-hār; B.: an-nār, the Fire); some others adore whatever they like; trees or animals. He said that he saw a man in the council of the King of Maqurra (majlis 'azīm al-muqurra) and questioned him about his country. The man answered that the distance from it to the Nile is three months' journey. He questioned the man about his religion and the man replied: 'My Lord (rabbī) and your Lord and the Lord of the King and the Lord of every man is but One'. He asked: 'Where is He?' The man answered: 'In Heaven alone: Glory to Him!' He also said that‘if the rains are late, or the people are hit by the plaque, or if pestilence falls on their cattle, they climb the mountain and pray to God and they are heard promptly and granted their demands before they come down (from the mountain). (Al-Aswānī) asked him: 'Did He ever send an Envoy (rasūl) among you?' He replied: ‘No’. So al-Aswānī told him about the mission of Moses and 'Isā and Moḥammed - God be pleased with them! - and the wonders which they wrought! The man answered: 'If they have wrought this, they should be believed.' Then he said: ‘I (too) should have believed in them, had they done that (in my presence)’.

... The author said: - The Awlād Kanz ad-Dawla vanquished the Nūba and took their kingdom since the year... (lacuna) and built a mosque in Dongola where he gives lodging to foreign travellers.

[The Karem]

Know that one the (west) bank of the Nile there is the (country of the) Kānem. Their king is a Mos¬lem: between him and the Māllī there is a very great distance; his capital is called Jīmī and the beginning of his kingdom, on the side of Egypt is a village called Zalā (Zella), and on the opposite side there is a village called Kākā: between the two there are about three months' journey. They wear the muffler (yatalaththimūna). Their king lives in seclusion and can be seen on two feast days in the morning and in the afternoon; throughout the rest of the year nobody may speak to him except from behind the screen (hijāb). Their staple food is rice which grows without being sown; they have wheat, dhurra, figs, lemons, egg-plant, turnip, fresh dates: they trade by exchanging home-made cloth called "dandī"; each piece (thawb) is 10 cubits in length; they buy it in pieces of 1/4 cubit each or more; they also make use of cowry (wada’), glassware (kharz, glassware, shells), pieces of copper, paper (waraq): all this is exchanged against pieces of that cloth.

In the south of their country there are places which are very hot (shi’ārī) and deserts (sahārā) inhabited by savage people similar to the Ghūl with human features; a horseman cannot overtake her, yet she can do harm to men; she appears during the night under the form of sparks (filal) of bright fire; if anyone attempts to catch her, she flees away from him; even though he runs after her, he cannot catch her: she will constantly flee ahead of him; if he throws stones at her and hits her, sparks of fire fly from her. In their country the gourd plant (al-yaqtīna) is held in great esteem so that they use it to make boats to cross the Nile. These countries between Ifrīqiya and Barqa extend southwards as far as the middle of the western parallel: the land is rainless and rugged and unattractive.

The first (person) who spread Islam there was a certain al-Hādī al-'Uthmanī, who claimed to be a descendant of Osman b. 'Affān. After him (the population) passed over to the Yazmīyyīn of Sayf b. Dhū-l-Yazan. They belong to the rite of the Imām Malik b. Uns. Justice is administered among them and they are very conservative about religion and tough. They built in the city of Miṣr a madrasa for the Mālikī (rite), called "madrasa ibn Rashīq", in the year 641 H. (1243 A.D.) and the students from their country come and settle here. (W. II, 3, pp. 252 - 258; B., pp. 554 - 560).

(more to follow)